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Urban Places, Parks

Landscape planning for urbanisation

All the world's cities are growing - and the quality of urban design in the new areas is deeply depressing. In large measure the problem results from entrusting the design of each component to specialists - without any serious attention to design of the space between buildings ('the outdoor landscape'). Highway engineers design roads, builders and architects design houses and apartment blocks, manufacturers design industrial sheds. Then, at the end of the day, one might commission a gardener to green-up the space between buildings, with ghastly results. If you want your city to have good open space between buildings, and on top of buildings, then landscape plans should precede urban development. The principle applies on greenfield sites and in urban renewal and regeneration projects.

Manifestly, we want access to clean air, sunshine, beautiful cities, sparkling rivers, ancient woods, gathering places in which to encounter other people. Landscape planners should focus on public goods and EID (environmental impact design). They should be plural in spirit and forward-looking in practice. This requires knowledge and information. With clear objectives for guidance, as beacons guide ships, we can respond to contexts and prepare plans which reflect the diverse wishes of diverse groups.

With imagination and skill, land uses can be integrated. Single-use planning is generally bad planning. It causes side-effects and public goods to be neglected, so that the land uses fall into disfavour and then decay. In this chapter, I have aimed to take a long view of the urbanisation process. While it proceeds, communities should found new settlements which conserve the existing landscape and create new public goods. Planning is required - but not too much of it.

At the start of the twentieth century, when optimistic reformers first argued the case for 'planning', they were confident that state control would produce a better world, with social justice, green parks, housing set apart from industry, towns ringed by fields, sunny streets, dung-free roads and hygienic disposal of other waste products. By the end of the twentieth century, some of the dreams had been realised and others had become nightmares. The new cities had dirty rivers, polluting roads, dreary parks, ugly scenery and dangerous footpaths. The City of Dreadful Night became the City of Dreadful Day.

Planning was part of the problem. In the Soviet Union, government planning produced grim totalitarian cities dominated by wide roads and high blocks, set far apart. In the United States, government planning took the form of over-investment in roads, rigid land use zoning and under-investment in public space. Western Europe compromised between these extremes, keeping its ancient town centres but surrounding them with a mix of Soviet and American planned development.

The author of London's best plan, Patrick Abercrombie, argued that: When two or three buildings are gathered together, there arises the question of their relationship to each other; when a road cuts across an open stretch of country, there is its relation to the landscape; when a piece of Land is enclosed, the question of the boundary lines occurs, and the decision as to the use to which it is put or the manner in which it is divided up. All these are examples of Town and Country Planning (Abercrombie 1959 edn: 11).

Like other modernist planners, he was too hasty in arguing from some to all. Twentieth century planning rested on an invalid argument form:

Some actions by land users affect other land users All actions which affect other land users require planning Therefore all actions by land users require planning

To logicians, this is known as the fallacy of the undistributed middle. I prefer the following, valid, argument: Some actions by land users affect public goods All actions which affect public goods require planning Therefore some actions by landowners require planning

Landscape planning can produce settlements which are rich in public goods. We should, as Nan Fairbrother said, make new landscapes for our new lives (Fairbrother, 1970:8).

Urbanisation requires planning. Finding a good site is the hardest task. Settlements need parents. Good decisions rely on good information. Topography comes first. Heed the wisdom of the ancients! Parks rely on contexts. Earthmoving provides great opportunities. Streams should be treasured. owns need lakes. Towns need community forests. Roads can spoil towns. 'All public' is just as bad as 'all private'. Planning housing areas for a single aspect of the public good tends to produce an unnacceptable degree of uniformity. Planning commercial projects like fried eggs disregards the public good. Noxious industries require special zones. Other types of industry do not.

Public Open Space (POS)

Landscape planning and environmental impact design (EID) The physical types of open space presently designed are astonishingly limited: the swimming beach, the roadside picnic area, the woodland with "nature trails", the grassed park dotted with trees and shrubbery, comprise the conventional range. (Lynch 1972)

Great civilisations allocate open space to public and non-productive uses. Historically, this has included gardens, temple compounds, ceremonial grounds, outdoor markets, social places, gymnasia for exercise and recreation, burial grounds, hunting and wildlife reserves. All this land is now classified by planners as 'public open space', because the land is accessible and unbuilt. It is a term which ignores the distinction between parks and greenways. Parks are for protection [Fig 4.1]. Greenways are for movement. The reasons for making 'public open space' are multifarious. Lynch, as quoted above, was right to protest that 'the physical types of open space presently designed are astonishingly limited'.

Public parks The park is dead. Long live the park.

Commons There always have been public rights in land and there always should be. Municipal parks They were one of the great social inventions of the nineteenth century. Squares and plazas Urban squares started as markets and many should continue to have a commercial role. Public gardens Cities need gardens and parks, not 'garks' Village greens Good planning is more important than good design National parks in towns Some parks need more-than-local funding. National parks in the country Country areas of key importance to a nation should be given the protection of national park status.

Private pleasure grounds Private enterprise is good at providing pleasure

Festival parks Nations love festivals, especially when they are in parks, but the money will be squandered if an after-use is not planned before the festival-use. Greenway function They should be 'green' in the environmental sense and 'ways' in many senses. Greenway history and typology Ceremonial avenues Boulevards Parkways Park belts Park systems Green belt Green trails Environmental greenways Greenway character In terms of character, greenways should have many colours. Open space management Greenways can supervene on other land uses, like happiness on the face of youth. A green web Public open space should radiate public goods.

Editor : Bengi Demirkan - L.A.- University of Greenwich/LONDON